In the early centuries of Christian era, there
flowered in North-western region of Pakistan,
remarkable and unique Buddhist civilization in all
its glory and splendor. It is now known the world
over as "Gandhara Civilization".
originally, however, the name stood for a country,
ancient kingdom located in this part of Pakistan.
What exact areas its borders en compassed cannot
be determined with any great accuracy today, but,
according to Hsiang Tsang, the famed Chinese
traveler, Empire of Gandhara "extends about
1000 li from East to West and about 800 li
from North to South. It is bounded on East by Sin
(Sindhu-Indus) river. Its capital is Po-lu-sha-pu-lo
(Purushapura = Peshawar)".
This testimony, along with other available
evidence, indicates that the kingdom of Gandhara
was confined to the territories West of Indus, now
comprising the valley of Peshawar and the hilly
districts of Swat, Buner and Bajaur. But the art
for which it is so famous extended far beyond its
geographical borders.
Although separated by the waters of the mighty
Indus and the lofty ranges of Himalayas and
Hindukush, Gandhara remains have been discovered
as far South as Mankiyala near Rawalpindi and as
far North as Oxus river. This was evidently no
isolated culture, but formed part of one and the
same Buddhist civilization; its art was
distinguished everywhere by the same general
characteristic, with only minor local variations.
The geographical situation of this North-Western
region, or what was once ancient Gandhara, placed
it in strategic position to play significant role
in history. It is fascinating country, rich with
corps, well-watered by Indus and her branches and
pleasant, with mils climate. Its majestic
foot-hills have divided it into small, self
contained valleys or Arcadian beauty, which bear
striking resemblance to those of classical Greece.
Lying on borderland between Indo-Pakistan and
Western Asia and belonging as little to the one as
to the other, this country was admirably situated
to evolve, along with the adjacent territories of
Punjab and Afghanistan, unique art-form, which
combined the best elements of classical East and
West.
Politically, Gandhara was never under indigenous
rule except once in its long and checkered
history. It came successively under the domination
of long line of foreign invaders. As a result, its
people became cosmopolitan, not only in their
culture and outlook, but also in their physical
appearance.
Some of the figures, represented in Gandhara
sculptures, are strikingly tall and dignified with
baggy trousers and sleeved coat, closely
resembling the present-day Pathans; others are characteristically
Greek, Scythian or Parthian , while yet others
possess the characteristics of Indo-Pakistani
forms.
The common speech of the people was Prakrit, but
the script was Kharoshthi, modified form of
Aramaic, then current in Western Asia. The usual
script for sacred texts was Brahmins. Evidently,
Gandhara took its speech from Indo-Pakistan
subcontinent and its writing from West. The
intimate fusion of these two widely divergent
elements is also traceable in many other aspects
of contemporary life, but it is perhaps nowhere so
clearly manifest as in sculptural art.
Gandhara was prosperous country, by all accounts.
Her prosperity was assured as much by her fertile
soil as by her peculiar geographical position. The
great arterial trade routes, which traversed Asia,
from China to Mediterranean coast and from
Turkestan to Indo-Pakistan subcontinent, passed
through this land, and it served as threshold
between East and West.
Economic prosperity of Gandhara, and the
importance of her key position in the world's
commerce is attested to alike by literary and
historical records and archaeological records. For
two centuries, between 50 and 250 AD, Gandhara, or
what is now North-West Pakistan, was kept busy
with the transit trade of Orient, and it exacted a
toll on all commodities that passed through its
borders.
By Kushana times, this expanding trade and the
increasing wealth it brought with it, made it
necessary for Kanishka to adopt, for his gold
coinage, themes from Western mythology and
standard of weight from Roman currency. In arts
and crafts, also, Gandhara was well-advanced and
her products, which included delicately-worked
gold and silver jewelry and carved ivory and metal
objects, were highly prized in many parts of the
civilized world.
The origin of Gandhara is lost in legendary
obscurity. Though mentioned in Vedic literature,
we find the first historical allusion to it in the
Bisotoun Inscription of Darius I, dated 518 BC,
which records Gandhara as conquered province.
Since then, it remained under Persians as
prosperous Satrapy, paying the largest tribute to
Imperial coffers. Its particular geographical
location, its flourishing trade and commerce, its
arts and crafts, nurtured in unbroken peace,
assured its continued prosperity.
The serene pool of life was, however, rudely
distributed by Alexander, Macedonian intruder. His
conquest of the province, in 326 BC, nevertheless
proved a boon in disguise. Pagan Greeks soon found
themselves subdued by superior religious logic of
East and employed all their artistic skill and
intelligence in its service, creating new Buddha
with beautiful Roman features and oriental halo.
This mode od sculpture marked a change from
conventional Indian style.
Alexander's occupation was, however, short-lived
and apparently inconsequential. Not so, Mauryan
period followed it. This was significant and
decisive period in the history of Gandhara. For,
it was Asoka, Mauryan Emperor, and his
missionaries, who converted the country to
Buddhism. His rock-edicts at Shahbazgarhi and
Mansehra bear eloquent testimony of his missionary
zeal. He is credited with the building of 84,000
religious edifices in different parts of this
country, some of which are still traceable.
Asoka's death in 232 BC was followed by period of
gradual decline. Situated as it was, on turbulent
border along the direct line of invasions,
Gandhara remained in state of perpetual unrest for
more than three centuries, during which it was
successively invaded and conquered by Bactrian
Greeks, Scythians, Parthian and Kushans. Under
Kanishka, the great Kushan Emperor, country once
again enjoyed peace and prosperity and its arts
and crafts flourished as they never had before.
The liberal patronage of Kanishka, vast resources
of his far-flung empire, its strength and
validity, and its trade and commerce now provided
suitable environment for the full flowering of
composite Buddhist art of Gandhara.
But, foreign invasions were not yet over. In 3rd
century of our era, Gandhara was again conquered
by Sassanid dynasty of Persia (Iran), followed by
Kidara Kushans.
Of the final fate of this fascinating Buddhist
civilization, archaeology combines with history to
give us broad idea. Shortly after the middle of
5th century AD, sung Yun, Chinese pilgrim, while
passing through this country, recorded: "This
this the country which Ye Tha
destroyed." Gandhara never recovered from the
violent destruction by Ye Tha, or White
Huns.
Despite all these vicissitudes, Gandhara had
become a great center of Buddhism. Buddha himself,
however, never came to this country, nor was his
religion ever preached here before Asoka's time,
some 200 years the death of the Master. And it was
until the advent of Kushans that this region
assumed importance in the history of Buddhism.
Huge monasteries and universities began to spring
up and, although not associated with Buddha's
mortal career, Gandhara gained special renown for
sanctity through the association of many of its
sites with Jataka stories. Large number of pilgrim
route to holy spots, which dot the country, often
marked by colossal rock-carved Buddha's, attest to
the veneration in which this land was once held by
Buddhists. Indeed, this place was held in such
high esteem in Buddhist world that some of Chinese
pilgrims did not feel the necessity of visiting
any other part of Subcontinent.
Kanishka turned Gandhara into veritable holy land
of Buddhism. He converted Fourth Buddhist Council
and it is generally believed that Maahayana
Buddhism made its first appearance under his
patronage and guidance.
Of the vast remains of Gandhara, monasteries and
city-sites of Taxila, Takht-Bahi and Swat take
priority, due largely to the extend of their
scientific investigation and their state of
preservation in recent times. In ancient times,
their fame was rivaled and sometimes outstripped
by many others, particularly in and around the
vale of Peshawar. An idea of the wealth and
affluence of some of these religious
establishments can be gained from the fact that
Sung Yun recorded the presence of 6000 gold images
in the single monastery of "Talo", now
identified with the stupa of Butkara in Swat.
The sculptural art, which gradually developed
here, was primarily religious art, mirror of its
moral and spiritual life. No study of this art is
possible without reference to religion, which it
served and the man who preached it. But Buddhism,
which so vitally influenced life and imagination
in Gandhara, was originally philosophy of life
rather than religion. Buddha advocated middle path
between indulgence and asceticism and sought
ultimate deliverance from accumulated sin in
supreme detachment, Nirvana.
Buddha, himself, was mortal, essentially and
tangibly human. But after his death, as time
passed, the person of Master gradually became
obscure in the din light of dogmatic speculation,
which turned him into legendary figure, with myths
woven around him. Itis this Mahayana Buddha and
his associates, whom the Gandhara artists
attempted to portray.
In Hinayana or the earlier form of Buddhism,
Buddha himself was never portrayed in his earthly
form, his presence being symbolized instead by
empty seat, foot-print, umbrella or rider-less
horse. In Mahayana Buddhism, which replaces the
earlier form, the figure of Master occupies
central position, commanding and controlling the
entire composition of panel. The invention of this
Buddha is the greatest contribution of Gandhara
art and Asia's greatest artistic achievement.
This was revolutionary change, both ichnographically
and aesthetically, which found its first and full
artistic expression in Gandhara. But to express
this new observance, there was neither any
comprehensive traditional idiom in the country,
nor was the appearance of the Master remembered by
his followers. How then determine the figure and
features of Buddha and how to express this new
idea? Obviously new conception was needed and
close parallels were available in iconography and
art-form of Imperial Rome. It was thus natural for
the Gandhara artists to turn to classical West for
inspiration and to give its art idiom Buddhist
context. Thus Hellenism in its eastward course and
Buddhisn in its westward march came in direct
contact in Gandhara and worked out artistic
synthesis.
For this fusion, the ground was already prepared
by the long and intimate contact of Gandhara with
West, further strengthened by migration of artists
and craftsmen and import of art objects from Roman
Empire during the prosperous reign of Kanishka.
This blending of eastern with Western elements to
create essentially oriental style, Roman in form
and Buddhist in motif, is the most distinctive
quality of this Buddhist art of Pakistan. In
subject matter, it retained to the last its
dominant religious bias.
Thus by combining the features of East and West,
head of Apollo and body of toga-clad Roman Senator
with half-shut eyes and crossed leg posture of
oriental sage, Gandhara artist achieved remarkable
success. And once created, this Buddha statue was
accepted and copied in every country, where homage
was paid to the Master. Gandhara art enjoyed
exceptionally long life. Then followed long
productive period, succeeded by slow decline, as
evidenced by loss of technical skill, monotonous
repetition and weakness of composition.
The scope of this art was not limited exclusively
to religious subjects; it covered, incidentally,
many other aspects of life. We have, in fact,
panoramic view of the people at work and play and
engaged in various other activities. Lovers,
dancers, musicians, travelers, ascetics,
wrestlers, and even robbers, too, have not been
left out. Costumes of people, weapons of war and
chase, musical instruments, toilet articles,
jewelry, tools, carts and carriages all are
represented in varying degrees. The comical side
of life is represented by remarkable group of
dwarfs, Atlantes, while popular imagination and
beliefs are represented by equally remarkable
groups of Yakshis, the darling of the people.
Among the subjects, introduced from classical
themes, are the sphinx, griffon, centaur, triton, hippo camp,
atlantid, erote, and number of other architectural
features; but these were employed in decorative
rather than devotional way.
Gandhara art has survived now mainly in sculpture
form, partly in schist stone and partly in stucco
and, in rare cases, also in clay.
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